Conflict history: Sri Lanka

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Head of State: President Mahinda Rajapakse (Sri Lanka Freedom Party), November 2005-

Prime Minister: Ratnasiri Wickremanayake (Sri Lanka Freedom Party), November 2005-

Sri Lanka gained independence from Britain in 1948 after almost 450 years of colonial rule by various western powers. Westminster-style parliamentary democracy implemented, with elections soon turning on ethnic issues. Nationalists from Sinhala majority (74% of population) passed laws discriminating against Tamils (18%) and Muslims (6%), including 1956 act making Sinhala official language and 1972 constitution giving Buddhism ‘foremost place’ in state. In early 1970s, young people turned to violence to express discontent at limited socio-economic opportunities, leading to failed Sinhala Nationalist/Marxist JVP (People’s Liberation Front) uprising in south in 1971, as well as formation of militant Tamil movements in north and east competing with established Tamil parties.

Tamil militants marginal until 1983 ambush killed thirteen soldiers in northern town of Jaffna, provoking Sinhala nationalists to unleash pogroms in Colombo and other Sinhala majority areas. Over 1,000 Tamils killed and tens of thousands fled homes; state failed to stop violence. Support for numerous Tamil militant groups flourished and hundred of thousands of Tamils emigrated in following few years, creating international support base for Tamil militancy that continues today. Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), fighting for separate Tamil state, emerged dominant after their violent elimination of Tamil rivals. LTTE initiated guerrilla war and bombing campaign on central government targets and began to capture territory in north and east. Government responded with killings and “disappearances” of Tamils.

In 1987, India signed agreement with the Sri Lankan government that dispatched peacekeeping force (IPKF) to north east and initiated constitutional amendments promising Tamil autonomy. IPKF soon became embroiled in war with LTTE. Anti-Indian nationalist sentiment in south fuelled fresh JVP uprising, met with brutal government repression. In 1990, President Ranasinghe Premadasa, hoping to pave the way for negotiated settlement, ordered IPKF to leave and opened negotiations with Tigers. LTTE soon broke from talks, captured additional territory and stepped up violence, including increased use of suicide bombs, used to murder Indian PM Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991 and Premadasa in May 1993.

Another peace effort followed 1994 parliamentary victory of People’s Alliance (led by the Sri Lanka Freedom Party) and the SLFP’s Chandrika Kumaratunga’s election as President later that year, riding wave of support for a negotiated settlement. Diplomacy collapsed April 1995 when LTTE sank two navy gunboats, triggering government military campaign that retook Jaffna peninsula December 1995. LTTE began widespread bombing of military and civilian targets in Sinhalese areas. Despite attempt on Kumaratunga’s life December 1999, government submitted extensive constitutional plans for devolution of power to north and east; voted down in parliament in August 2000 with opposition from both the JVP and the United National Party (UNP). Violence escalated 2000-2001 with new territorial gains for LTTE in increasingly impoverished north east.

UNP won December 2001 parliamentary elections after campaigning on peace platform, President Kumaratunga forced into uneasy cohabitation with new Prime Minister Ranil Wickremasinghe. New government negotiated ceasefire agreement February 2002 under Norwegian facilitation, temporarily easing tensions. In peace negotiations, LTTE and government agreed to explore a settlement based on extensive autonomy for north and east under a federal system. LTTE unexpectedly withdrew from negotiations April 2003 citing exclusion from meetings with international donors and lack of government cooperation. LTTE presented proposals for Interim Self-Government Authority in October 2003 as basis for new negotiations. Kumaratunga, largely excluded from peace process, acting on Sinhala anti-negotiation sentiment and anger at LTTE ceasefire violations, took over defense and other crucial ministries, effectively stalling peace process. President dissolved February 2004 and called fresh elections April 2004, which Kumaratunga’s Sri Lanka Freedom Party won in alliance with JVP. The search for a sustainable solution further complicated when the LTTE’s eastern military commander, ‘Col. Karuna’, split from the Tigers March 2004. Violent clashes between the two factions and Karuna’s growing collaboration with Sri Lankan military further undermined trust between government and LTTE and contributed to ceasefire’s eventual collapse.

Renewed hopes of cooperation following December 2004 tsunami proved short-lived as disputes arose over distribution of foreign aid. LTTE boycott of presidential election November 2005 helped secure victory of PM Mahinda Rajapakse (SLFP) as part of Sinhala nationalist alliance with JVP and Jathika Hela Urumaya (JHU). LTTE launched wave of attacks on police and army in north and east; government quietly began brutal counterinsurgency efforts, while Karuna faction, now renamed Tamil Makkal Viduthalai Puligal (TMVP) continued guerrilla attacks on LTTE in east. February 2006 talks in Geneva failed to salvage battered ceasefire. Government launched military offensive July 2006, capturing strategic towns of Sampur in September 2006 and Vakarai in January 2007. Fighting caused massive displacement and heavy casualties. LTTE renewed pre-ceasefire strategy of suicide bombings on southern civilian targets and stepped up forcible recruitment of children and adults. LTTE leader Velupillai Prabhakaran declared ceasefire “defunct” 27 November 2006 and called for renewed “freedom struggle” for independent state. Conflict intensified through late 2006 and continued throughout 2007; both sides suffered heavy casualties. Fall of LTTE camps in Thoppigala 11 July 2007 gave Government forces’ control over whole of eastern province. Military activity then shifted north, as government opened fronts on four sides of LTTE controlled Wanni region.

Government formally withdrew from ceasefire with LTTE on 16 Jan 2008. Fighting intensified during first months of year, and conventional battles were accompanied by continuing rights abuses from both sides, including political assassinations, abductions, and targeted attacks on civilians. Between 20,000 and 30,000 have been killed since 2006, with government and particularly LTTE suffering heavy losses in battle and at least 10,000 civilians killed in crossfire and targeted attacks. Eastern Provincial Council elections in May 2008 saw victory of government candidates in alliance with breakaway Tiger faction TMVP, amid widespread reports of violence, intimidation, ballot-stuffing and other serious irregularities. Current TMVP leader, S. Chandrakanthan, alias Pillayan, selected as Chief Minister, with government promises to devolve power and commence major development projects. To date, no significant powers have been devolved to the eastern provincial council. After his release from British jail on immigration charges, Karuna returned to Sri Lanka and recommenced political work. Tensions between TMVP leaders Karuna and Pillayan intensified after Karuna joined parliament 7 October 2008; related clashes broke out between their factions in east, including killings and disappearances. Karuna appointed minister for national integration and reconciliation 9 March 2009 when he and many of his fighters officially joined the SLFP.

Following the 2 January 2009 capture of de facto LTTE capital of Killinochchi, government forces won back all but small amount of territory held by LTTE in the Mullaitivu District. Between 250,000 and 300,000 civilians were trapped in areas of fighting, with limited access to food, water or medical assistance. The LTTE forcibly conscripted civilians and prevented others from fleeing LTTE-controlled areas by firing at them, killing many. Government repeatedly bombed and shelled densely populated areas, including its own unilaterally declared “no fire zone”. UN Agencies estimated more than 7,500 civilians dead and over 15,000 wounded between mid-January and early May 2009. 13 March 2009 statement by UN High Commissioner for Human Rights expressed grave concern over credible evidence of war crimes by both sides. UN and government leaders called on the LTTE to allow civilians freedom of movement and urged both sides to halt their fighting to allow access for additional humanitarian relief and humanitarian personnel. The Government rejected any pause in the fighting.

Following weeks of intense attacks on densely populated civilian areas and allegations of grave violations of the laws of war by government forces and the LTTE, the Government declared victory on 18 May2009. A picture of the body of LTTE leader Velupillai Prabhakaran appeared in the press the next day, and despite disbelief among many Tamils, the entire LTTE leadership appears to have been killed. Small numbers of LTTE fighters remain at large in the Eastern Province; it is unclear how serious a threat they continue to pose.

With the military phase of Sri Lanka’s thirty-year civil war apparently over, major challenges remain before a lasting peace can be found. Nearly 300,000 civilians who esacaped the fighting are now held in overcrowded government-run internment camps. The displaced are denied the right to live with relatives or host families and UN agencies and humanitarians organization have not been granted full and unimpeded access to the camps and are thus unable to deliver adequate supplies and services. There are also serious concerns about the protection of residents from threats from government-backed Tamil paramilitaries, government security forces, and remaining LTTE cadres within the camps. Government officials have sent conflicting signals on how long people will be forced to remain within the camps, with estimates ranging from six months to three years.

The Sri Lankan government is also faced with the decades-old challenge of developing a set of political reforms able to address the grievances of Tamils and other minorities while reassuring those Sinhalese concerned about the danger of separatism. A central test of the government’s commitment to finding a lasting and just peace will be its willingness to implement provisions in the existing constitution granting powers to provincial councils. The government may have to go futher and consider additional legal changes likely to be necessary to satisfy representatives of Tamils, Muslims and other minorities.

Updated May 2009

For further information see Crisis Group reports and briefings on Sri Lanka. The CrisisWatch database provides a report on monthly conflict developments for Sri Lanka since September 2003.