Conflict history: Sudan

New Search - Map

Head of State: General Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir, June 1989-

Africa’s biggest country, Sudan is divided along lines of religion (70 per cent Muslim, 25 per cent animist, 5 per cent Christian), ethnicity (African, Arab origin), tribe and economic activity (nomadic and sedentary). Country has been in near constant war since independence in 1956, with most significant conflict between North and South 1956-1972 and 1983-2005.

Loose Ottoman-Egyptian administration collapsed 1880s after revolt led by self-appointed Islamic Mahdi. Anglo-Egyptian forces captured Khartoum 1889, establishing joint-administered condominium. British separated North and South until 1947, giving political power to northern elite before country gained independence January 1956. Fearing marginalisation by north, southern army officers mutinied 1955, forming Anya-Nya guerrilla movement. General Abboud seized power 1958, instituted policy of Islamisation.

Abboud forced out by 1964 popular uprising. Numerous Arab-dominated governments followed until 1969 coup by General Nimieri. Failed 1971 Communist coup left Nimieri politically isolated, pushing him to seek peace with Ethiopia, Uganda and southern rebels. Addis Ababa peace agreement with Anya-Nya March 1972 granted autonomy to South and integrated Anya-Nya into national army.

Systematic violations of agreement by government, combined with increasing Islamic shift in late 1970s and discovery of oil in south eventually led to resumption of war and deployment of northern troops to oil-rich town of Bentiu. Southern troops mutinied against government early 1983. Nimieri abrogated Addis Ababa agreement June, dissolving south’s constitutional guarantees and declaring Arabic official language; Islamic Sharia law replaced Sudanese law September. Southern grievances crystallised around Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA) led by John Garang. Popular uprising overthrew Nimieri 1985 and Sadiq al-Mahdi’s democratic government (Umma Party) elected 1986.

Moves towards SPLA-government peace halted when National Islamic Front (NIF) led bloodless coup June 1989, day before bill freezing Sharia law due to be passed. Led by General Omar al-Bashir, NIF unravelled steps towards peace, revoked constitution, banned opposition parties, moved to Islamise judicial system, stepped up north-south war, proclaimed jihad against non-Muslim south.

SPLA weakened 1991 by fall of Mengitsu regime in Ethiopia and internal split leading to inter-ethnic fighting in south. Khartoum’s harbouring of Osama bin Laden and other Islamic fundamentalist groups in early 1990s led to international isolation. 1998 US cruise missile attack followed terrorist bombings of U.S. embassies in Nairobi and Dar-es-Salaam.

On-off negotiations between government and SPLA under Kenyan-led regional Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD) made little progress 1994-2001. July 2002 Machakos Protocol granted self-determination referendum for south after six-year period, maintained Sharia law in north. January 2005 Naivasha Accords formally ended North-South war with signing of Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), incorporated SPLA/M into Government of National Unity (GNU), created schedule for 2009 national elections. While implementation stilted – largely due to absence of political will within ruling National Congress Party (NCP) – new constitution ratified and new government sworn in by October 2006. July 2007 deadline for government troops to withdraw from south passed without international response. SPLM/A left GNU October 2007 in protest over delays, returning December 2007 and now holding cabinet and foreign minister positions. But tensions between Arab militia and SPLM in oil-rich Abyei region on North-South border, granted special administrative status by agreement, increased dramatically from March 2008 – army-SPLA fighting most serious breaches of CPA since signing. Some 100,000 displaced by June amid fears of return to full-scale civil war, leading to NCP-SPLM roadmap signed June to defuse conflict. Joint force deployed as first step in implementing roadmap. Agreed to submit Abyei border dispute to Hague-based Permanent Court for Arbitration.

CPA failed to address many demands of eastern groups that fought in North/South conflict. Separate peace (Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement) signed between the government and Eastern Front rebel groups in October 2006, but confidence in government’s commitment remained low. Progress finally made in May 2007 when Bashir appointed 3 Eastern Front officials to new government positions, but slow return to war still possible.

New chapter in Sudan's civil wars opened in Darfur February 2003 when Sudan Liberation Army/Movement (SLA/M) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rebels – predominantly from African Fur, Zaghawa, Massaleit tribes – attacked government garrison. After series of military victories, government-supported Arab Janjaweed militia began ethnically cleansing African tribes. Despite 2004 deployment of African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS), attacks on civilians continued and Khartoum failed to rein in militias. Insecurity compounded by inter-rebel fighting and proxy war between Sudan and Chad, eventually destabilising Central African Republic (CAR). In March 2005, UNSC referred Darfur situation to International Criminal Court (ICC). ICC issued arrest warrants for government minister, Ahmed Harun, and Janjaweed commander, Ali Kushayb, April 2007; Khartoum has refused to hand over.

Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) signed by government and one SLA/M faction (led by Minni Minawi, SLA/MM) May 2006, but undermined by absence of other parties. Attacks on civilians and aid workers increased dramatically from late 2006. Groups since splintered, confrontations complicated by Arab-Arab tension and broad ‘land-grab’ by all parties. SLA/MM as well as Janjaweed and government forces responsible for increasing attacks on civilians. IDP camps continue to militarise and generate own political demands, raising fears emerging organisations will take extreme positions. Retaliatory attacks accelerated and intensified from early 2008, when government launched major aerial and ground attacks in west and north Darfur. JEM’s attempted assault on Khartoum on 10-11 May prompted government crackdown: 300 suspected JEM arrested in capital; ties severed with Chad. Political situation in Darfur was drastically complicated by the attack. Initially government closed door to dialogue by announcing that it would not negotiate with JEM or with SLM-Abdul Wahid. Khartoum finally accepted AU/UN hybrid force for Darfur (UNAMID) June 2007, in face of increasing international sanctions. UNAMID replaced AU January 2008, but resistance from Khartoum has slowed deployment.

ICC Prosecutor Moreno-Ocampo July 2008 applied for arrest warrant for President Bashir for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. ICC judges now deciding whether to issue. Application increases pressure on regime to implement genuine measures to resolve Darfur crisis, but also poses major risks for Sudan’s fragile peace. Ruling NCP, clearly shaken by development, trying to manage political and legal implications. In addition to broad domestic consultation process on Darfur, seeking international support, especially from African Union and Arab League states. Both organisations condemned Moreno-Ocampo’s application.

updated September 2008

For further information see Crisis Group reports and briefings on Sudan. The CrisisWatch database provides a report on monthly conflict developments for Sudan since September 2003.