President Bukele slashed size of Congress and number of municipalities, raising fears govt is consolidating power ahead of 2024 polls; authorities put pressure on former officials accused of corruption.

Govt enacted number of administrative-political reforms. During State of the Union address on 1 June, President Bukele announced reorganisation of govt: reduction of municipalities from 262 to 44; reduction of legislative assembly from 84 seats to 60; and “war on corruption”. Following speech, govt 7 June passed law slimming Congress down to 60 deputies, 14 June reduced number of municipalities to 44. Opposition politicians warned move concentrates power in hands of ruling party Nuevas Ideas ahead of Feb 2024 presidential, legislative and local elections; Nuevas Ideas 26 June announced Bukele had registered to run for re-election, despite constitutional ban on consecutive presidential re-election. Meanwhile, Legislative Assembly 14 June approved state of exception’s fifteenth extension amid human rights concerns.

Judicial proceedings against former officials accused of corruption continued. Attorney General 6 June charged former President Alfredo Cristiani in connection with 1989 massacre of six Jesuit priests and two women. National Civilian Police director 6 June announced politicians and journalists involved in 2012 “gang truce” talks will face judicial proceedings. Attorney General 17 June announced money laundering charges against former Defence Minister David Munguía Payes, sentenced in May to 18 years in prison for having conducted truce negotiations with criminal groups in 2012.

Authorities renewed state of exception as crackdown on gangs continued, and court handed down lengthy prison sentence to former president for ties to gangs.

Security forces fenced off community after suspected gang members killed officer. As Legislative Assembly 16 May approved state of exception’s 14th extension, presumed gang members same day killed officer in Nueva Conception municipality (Chalatenango department); authorities 17 May deployed 500 police and 5,000 soldiers to area and installed fence around perimeter, making Nueva Conception fifth municipality to be cordoned off since President Bukele late 2022 announced phase 5 of Territorial Control Plan, intended to “extract every last terrorist from the communities of El Salvador”. Meanwhile, NGO Cristosal 29 May said at least 153 people had died in custody since state of exception began in March 2022.

Court sentenced former president for illicit association with gangs. Trial proceeded against former President Mauricio Funes and former Justice and Security Minister David Munguía Payés, accused of “illicit association” and “breach of duties” during 2012-2014 gang truce, notably making “pact” with gangs. Former director of State Intelligence Service José Ricardo Perdomo 3 May testified that Funes knew of “irregular conditions” inside prisons, such as mediators entering without registering, deactivation of cell phone signals and gang leaders’ transfer to other prison facilities with lower security measures. Court 29 May sentenced Funes and Munguía to 14 and 18 years in prison, respectively.

Authorities renewed state of exception for 13th time as concerns about human rights violations persisted; U.S. arrested key MS-13 leader on terrorism charges.

State of exception extended amid continued concern over human rights violations. Legislative assembly 12 April once again approved state of exception’s extension, while Justice and Public Security Minister Gustavo Villatoro 17 April said authorities had arrested 67,467 people for gang affiliation since introducing measure. Complaints of human rights violations continued. Notably, NGO Amnesty International 3 April published statement accusing authorities of “systematically” committing human rights violations; five local civil society organisations 11 April submitted report to UN regarding extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions in El Salvador’s prisons. Meanwhile, trade union representatives 18 April condemned arrest of at least 16 trade unionists since Jan 2023 under state of exception framework; moves signal measure’s expanding use against political actors, which may increase as elections edge closer.

MS-13 leader arrested on terrorism charges. U.S. 18 April arrested MS-13 gang leader Jose Wilfredo Ayala-Alcantara, also known as “Indio de Hollywood”, upon his arrival in Texas state after Mexico deported him. He and 12 associates already in U.S. custody were detained on terrorism charges and now await trial; President Bukele’s administration had previously released some of these leaders from Salvadoran prisons.

One year after govt first imposed 30-day state of exception, authorities renewed measure for 12th time amid widespread support; Legislative Assembly lifted electoral reform ban.

One-year anniversary of state of exception passed. 27 March marked one year since govt first imposed state of exception for 30 days to tackle gang violence. Twelve days prior, legislative assembly 15 March approved measure’s 12th extension. Justice and Public Security Minister Gustavo Villatoro 27 March said authorities had arrested 66,417 people for gang affiliation since measure took effect. Complaints about human rights violations persisted. Notably, UN human rights office 28 March said 90 people have died in custody since March 2022, adding that “there is only limited information on how investigations of those deaths are proceeding”. Despite human rights concerns, state of exception continued to enjoy wide popular support and President Bukele maintained high approval ratings.

Authorities repealed ban on reforms to electoral processes. Legislative Assembly 15 March lifted ban on enacting changes to electoral system one year before elections. Opposition politician Claudia Ortiz condemned move, arguing measure will allow govt to modify rules up to one day before polls are held, which indicates ruling party may seek to make changes ahead of next presidential election in Feb 2024; Ortiz accused Bukele of seeking to “concentrate more power”.

Authorities extended state of exception for 11th time, and International Monetary Fund (IMF) published findings on state of economy and outlook.

State of exception renewed once again amid continued concern about human rights. Following Legislative Assembly’s 11th renewal of state of exception on 14 Feb, Minister of Justice and Public Security Gustavo Villatoro 22 Feb said 64,512 people had been arrested for gang affiliation since measure began. Concerns about human rights violations continued as state of exception’s one-year anniversary neared. Notably, online news outlet El Faro 3 Feb said measure had broken gangs’ hold on communities but also resulted in systematic violation of human rights and slide into authoritarianism. According to NGO Cristosal, as of 15 Feb there had been at least 107 in-custody deaths since March 2022. Meanwhile, authorities 24 Feb transferred 2,000 prisoners to new mega-prison of Tecoluca, which will house 40,000 prisoners; NGO Human Rights Watch 26 Feb said “packing tens of thousands of detainees is unlikely to bring security for Salvadorans in a sustainable manner”.

International Monetary Fund released statement on economic situation. Following its latest mission to El Salvador, IMF 10 Feb presented final statement amid concerns about economic situation, saying country must bring its debt “back to a sustainable path”; statement also highlighted increased vulnerabilities, including account deficit, low international reserves and high stock of short-term domestic debt.

Authorities renewed state of exception for tenth time as President Bukele lauded improved security situation; Salvadoran debt remained high.

Authorities once again renewed state of exception. Legislative Assembly 11 Jan extended state of exception, cornerstone of Bukele’s administration, for tenth time. News outlet La Prensa Gráfica 17 Jan reported that more than 97,000 people, or 2% of country’s adult population, is now behind bars, making it highest imprisonment rate worldwide; Legislative Assembly 12 Jan reported over 61,000 people have been arrested since state of exception began in March 2022. Bukele 17 Jan declared that El Salvador had become “safest country in Latin America” and that state of exception would last “as long as necessary”.

NGOs raised concerns over arbitrary arrests and deaths in custody in past year. NGO Cristosal 5 Jan said it had received 3,086 complaints of human rights violations between March 2022 and 31 Dec, 97% of which were for arbitrary arrests. In its World Report 2023, NGO Human Rights Watch (HRW) 12 Jan expressed concern for high number of arbitrary arrests and deaths of 90 people while in custody. In joint statement, HRW and Cristosal 27 Jan said leaked database belonging to Ministry of Public Safety “supports findings of mass due process violations, severe prison overcrowding, and deaths in custody”.

In other important developments. News outlet Elsalvador.com 18 Jan reported that Bukele had increased Salvadoran debt by $5 billion in his three years in office. Legislative Assembly 11 Jan approved controversial Digital Securities Law, allowing El Salvador to issue Bitcoin-backed bonds. VP Ulloa 3 Jan asked Brazil to rejoin Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, signalling willingness to engage with other countries in region.

Govt launched major offensive in Soyapango to combat gang violence as authorities renewed state of exception for ninth time; relations with U.S. remained tense.

Campaign of mass arrests to tackle gangs continued. President Bukele 3 Dec launched offensive in Soyapango city (centre), deploying 8,500 soldiers and 1,500 police officers to cut off transit in and out of city and search houses for gang members. Ministry of justice 12 Dec confirmed apprehension of at least 375 alleged gang members in ongoing operation, next day announced that 60,000 alleged gang members had been arrested since state of exception began late March. In capital San Salvador, over 2,000 soldiers and around 230 police officers 24, 25 Dec surrounded Tutunichapa and La Granjita neighbourhoods to root out gang members. Meanwhile, Legislative Assembly 14 Dec extended state of exception for ninth time.

Broad public support for crackdown continued, NGOs denounced abuses. NGO Human Rights Watch and Salvadoran group Cristosal 7 Dec published report documenting hundreds of forced disappearances, torture, deaths in custody and arbitrary arrests under state of exception. Journalist association APES 21 Dec said freedom of press is in “critical state”. Nonetheless, crackdown remained popular, with news outlet La Prensa Gráfica 12 Dec publishing survey showing that 88% of 1,520 interviewees support Bukele and 85% consider security situation improved.

In other important developments. U.S. Treasury Department 9 Dec sanctioned two officials close to Bukele – Minister of Labour Rolando Castro and Bukele’s legal secretary Conan Castro – on charges of corruption and human rights violations. Meanwhile, Bukele 7 Dec announced govt had repurchased $82mn of its sovereign debt bonds in attempt to calm market concerns around possible debt default.

Govt’s heavy-handed approach to gangs continued amid eighth renewal of state of exception; further evidence of past ties between officials and gangs emerged.

Bukele administration continued its mano dura approach to tackle gangs. Vice Minister of Justice and director of prison system Osiris Luna Meza 1 Nov posted video of non-gang affiliated prisoners destroying tombs of gang members, part of new effort to erase all gang symbolism in country. Legislative Assembly same day approved series of reforms that ease proceedings to approve wiretapping through newly established Examining Courts; reforms exempt attorney general’s office from submitting reports on wiretaps to judges and strip human rights ombudsman’s office of oversight role. President Bukele 23 Nov announced phase 5 of “Territorial Control Plan”, called Extraction, intended to “extract every last terrorist from the communities of El Salvador”. Meanwhile, Legislative Assembly 15 Nov renewed state of exception for eighth time, while ministry of security 21 Nov reported arrest of over 58,000 suspected gang members since state of exception began in March. Police reported stark reduction of daily homicides between Jan and 14 Nov, putting 2022 on track to break record low murder rate of 2021. However, UN Committee against Torture 25 Nov published report expressing concern over arrests and irregularities committed under state of exception.

Media continued to expose past ties between authorities and gangs. Association of Journalists of El Salvador 3 Nov accused authorities of harassment and threats against journalist Juan Martínez d’Aubuisson after investigation published four days earlier found that current Attorney General Rodolfo Delgado had defended MS-13 collaborators in the past. Meanwhile, online news outlet El Faro 7 Nov revealed that National Civil Police had investigated Luna Meza in 2020 for possible links to gang leaders and drug traffickers.

In other important developments. Bukele 9 Nov announced that El Salvador and China will sign free trade agreement.

Govt continued crackdown on gangs amid seventh renewal of state of exception since March; relations with Western partners grew more strained.

Authorities launched major military operation targeting gang members. Gang-related homicide early Oct prompted govt to launch massive military operation in Comasagua municipality (centre west). Over 2,000 soldiers and police 2 Oct surrounded and closed off town of 12,000 inhabitants to search for members of MS-13 gang, and arrested at least 155 gang members in following days; Attorney General’s Office 16 Oct charged detainees with “illicit association” and other crimes.

State of exception renewed for seventh time amid concerns over human rights. Then human rights ombudsperson Apolonio Tobar 14 Oct released report revealing that between 27 March (when state of exception was first imposed) and 3 Oct, his office had received 3,777 complaints of human rights violations; despite allegations, Legislative Assembly same day renewed state of exception for seventh time. Although measure remains popular among Salvadorans, survey published 18 Oct by Central American University revealed growing awareness of state of exception’s limitations; notably, 51% of interviewees feared it would not solve gang issue and over 30% knew someone unjustly detained.

New allegations against senior figures of past collusion with gangs emerged. Attorney General’s Office 13 Oct formally accused former ARENA party presidential candidate Norman Quijano of negotiating with gangs to gain electoral support in 2014 elections. Meanwhile, news outlet El Faro 27 Oct published new evidence that authorities released senior MS-13 gang leader Élmer Canales Rivera, alias “Crook,” from prison in November 2021, despite multiple upstanding sentences adding up to over four decades in prison.

In other important developments. El Salvador was one of three countries to abstain in Organization of American States General Assembly’s resolution 7 Oct denouncing Nicaraguan President Ortega’s crackdown on dissent; 12 Oct did not participate in UN General Assembly vote to condemn Russia’s pledged annexation of four Ukrainian territories.

President Bukele announced candidacy for 2024 elections, authorities renewed for sixth time state of exception, and economic outlook remained poor.

President Bukele announced re-election bid. On anniversary of country’s independence, Bukele 15 Sept announced he would seek re-election in 2024, defying country’s constitution prohibiting presidents from serving consecutive terms. Supreme Court’s constitutional chamber, appointed by current legislature, had already ruled in favour of allowing Bukele to stand for re-election in Sept 2021.

State of exception was extended for sixth time amid small-scale protests. Several protests against state of exception (imposed in March to address gang violence) took place throughout month. Notably, relatives of detainees 5 Sept marched to Human Rights Ombudsperson’s office calling on institution to address alleged abuses perpetrated under emergency powers; hundreds 15 Sept took to streets in capital San Salvador demanding end to state of exception. Civil society groups 23 Sept filed lawsuit with Inter-American Commission on Human Rights for arbitrary detention of at least 152 people. Legislative Assembly 14 Sept however extended emergency measures for sixth time; decision came days after consulting firm Cid Gallup 5 Sept published poll showing that 91% of respondents supported govt’s measures to crackdown on gangs.

Economic outlook remained worrying. Govt 12 Sept offered creditors partial buyback of $1.6 billion bonds due in 2023 and 2025 in order to reduce risk of debt default; Bukele 21 Sept announced govt had repurchased $565 million bonds. However, financial services company Fitch Ratings 15 Sept said “default of some sort” in future was “probable”.